Several studies provide strong evidence for an involvement of language in exact arithmetic ( Spelke and Tsivkin, 2001). In the present study, we investigated whether and how the progressive acquisition of multiple languages modulates arithmetic problem solving in bilinguals. Yet language plays an especially crucial role in more complex numerical computations, such as arithmetic problem solving. Recent studies demonstrated that basic processes such as number comparison are performed in slightly different ways depending on task language ( Nuerk et al., 2005 Macizo et al., 2010 Van Rinsveld et al., 2012). In other words, exact numerical quantities are learned through the use of language ( Le Corre and Carey, 2007), and consequently exact number processing remains under the influence of language long after exact number representation acquisition. Formal education enables the acquisition of exact number representations through labeling sets using distinct number names ( Fuson et al., 1982). While their members can handle and manipulate large numerosities approximately, they are not able to process and represent them exactly ( Gordon, 2004 Pica et al., 2004). Amazonian tribes who have restricted or no number words for quantities larger than five (or even two) impressively illustrate the importance of language for exact quantity representations. Taken together, these findings support the view of a strong relation between language and arithmetic in bilinguals.Īlthough every human can manipulate approximate numerical quantities independently from language ( Xu and Spelke, 2000), acquiring and mastering symbolic representations of exact quantities critically depends on language and instruction. ten-unit) also induced significant modulations of bilinguals' arithmetic performances. Additional analyses revealed that over and above language proficiency, language-specific number word structures (e.g., unit-ten vs. Simple additions in contrast can be retrieved equally well in both languages after extended language practice. The results confirmed that language proficiency is crucial especially for complex addition computation. We implemented a transversal developmental design in which bilingual pupils from grades 7, 8, 10, 11, and young adults were asked to solve simple and complex additions in both languages. Importantly, German and French number naming structures differ clearly, as two-digit number names follow a unit-ten order in German, but a ten-unit order in French. We addressed these issues in a German–French educational bilingual setting, where there is a progressive transition from German to French as teaching language.
Additionally, we examined whether the number word structure that is specific to a given language plays a role in number processing over and above bilingual proficiency. The present study investigated how proficiency in two languages interacts with arithmetic problem solving throughout language acquisition in adolescents and young adults. One might thus wonder whether this language-reliance leads to qualitative differences (e.g., greater difficulties, error types, etc.) in arithmetic for bilingual individuals who frequently have to solve arithmetic problems in more than one language. Solving arithmetic problems is a cognitive task that heavily relies on language processing.